Class 12 Sociology · Chapter 3 NotesSocial Institutions: Continuity and Change

Caste is a uniquely Indian social institution, though similar systems exist elsewhere. The English word 'caste' comes from the Portuguese 'casta', meaning pure breed. In India, two terms describe caste: varna and jati. Varna refers to the four-fold division of society into brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra, excluding outcastes. Jati refers to local sub-castes, which are numerous and regionally specific. While varna is a broad pan-India classification, jati is a local hierarchy. The varna system is about three thousand years old, but it was not always rigid. In the late Vedic period (900–500 BC), movement between varnas was possible. Later, caste became rigid and determined by birth.

• Varnafour-fold division (brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya, shudra).
• Jatilocal sub-castes, often based on occupation.
• Caste became rigid after the Vedic period.

Caste has several key features: it is determined by birth and cannot be changed; it is endogamous, meaning marriage within the caste; it has rules about food and food-sharing; it is hierarchical, with castes ranked by purity and pollution; it has segmental organisation with sub-castes; and it is traditionally linked to hereditary occupations. The caste system is based on difference and separation, as well as wholism and hierarchy. Purity and pollution determine status, with higher castes considered purer. Castes are also complementary and non-competing, forming a social division of labour with no mobility.

• Caste is ascribed by birth.
• Endogamymarriage within caste.
• Hierarchy based on purity and pollution.
• Segmental organisationsub-castes within castes.
• Hereditary occupations.

The colonial period (roughly 1800–1947) brought major changes to caste. The British conducted surveys and censuses to understand and govern Indian society. The 1901 Census under Herbert Risley attempted to rank castes, leading to petitions and heightened caste consciousness. The Government of India Act of 1935 created schedules of castes and tribes for special treatment, giving rise to the terms 'Scheduled Castes' and 'Scheduled Tribes'. Colonial interventions made caste identities more rigid and official, changing the institution itself.

• Census operations recorded caste status.
• 1901 Census ranked castes, causing social impact.
• Government of India Act 1935 introduced Scheduled Castes and Tribes.

After independence, the state committed to abolishing caste and untouchability, but caste persists. Modern industry, urbanisation, and education have weakened some caste barriers, but endogamy remains strong. Caste is central to politics, with caste-based parties emerging since the 1980s. For the urban upper castes, caste often seems invisible because their privilege is consolidated. For Scheduled Castes and backward castes, caste is highly visible and a basis for collective identity and political mobilisation. Concepts like sanskritisation and dominant caste help explain these dynamics.

• Sanskritisationlower castes adopting higher caste practices to raise status.
• Dominant castecastes with land, numbers, and political power.
• Caste remains important in politics and marriage.

Tribes are among the oldest inhabitants of India. They are often defined by what they are not: they lack written religious texts, state structures, and sharp class divisions. Tribes are classified by permanent traits (region, language, physical characteristics, ecological habitat) and acquired traits (livelihood, assimilation into Hindu society). About 85% of tribals live in 'middle India', with concentrations in the North-East. Major tribes include Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas, Bodos, and Mundas. According to the 2011 Census, tribals constitute 8.6% of India's population.

• Permanent traitsregion, language, physical features, habitat.
• Acquired traitslivelihood, assimilation.
• Major tribesGonds, Bhils, Santhals, etc.

Scholars debated whether tribes are a continuum with caste society or entirely different. Some argued tribes are less stratified and more community-based; others pointed to the absence of purity-pollution. By the 1970s, definitions of tribe were challenged as tribes were found to be large, integrated, and not isolated. The idea of tribes as 'pristine' was rejected; instead, tribes are seen as 'secondary' phenomena arising from contact with states. Historically, adivasis had kingdoms and trade networks, and were not always oppressed.

• Tribe-caste continuum vs. distinct categories.
• Tribes are not isolated or pristine.
• Adivasis had kingdoms and trade.

National development, especially large dams, mines, and factories, has disproportionately affected tribals, who live in mineral-rich and forested areas. Displacement and loss of forests have been major blows. In-migration of non-tribals threatens tribal cultures. Tribal identity today is shaped by resistance and opposition to mainstream forces. However, an educated middle class is emerging among tribals, leading to new assertions of identity based on culture, tradition, and resource control.

• Development projects displaced tribals.
• Forest loss and in-migration.
• Emergence of tribal middle class and identity movements.

Family is a universal institution but takes diverse forms. Nuclear families consist of parents and children; extended families include multiple couples and generations. Families can be matrilocal or patrilocal (residence), matrilineal or patrilineal (inheritance), and patriarchal or matriarchal (authority). Matriarchy is theoretical; matriliny exists. Family structures change with broader social changes, such as migration or economic shifts. In India, the joint family is often seen as traditional, but it was never the dominant form for all.

• Nuclear vs. extended family.
• Matrilocal vs. patrilocal residence.
• Matrilineal vs. patrilineal inheritance.
• Patriarchy vs. matriarchy (theoretical).