Class 12 Sociology · Chapter 9 NotesCultural Change

The 19th century social reform movements arose in response to challenges faced by colonial Indian society. Well-known issues included sati, child marriage, ban on widow remarriage and caste discrimination. While pre-colonial movements like Buddhism, Bhakti and Sufi also fought discrimination, the 19th century attempts were marked by a modern context and a mix of ideas. Reformers creatively combined modern western liberal ideas with a new look at traditional literature. For example, Raja Ram Mohun Roy attacked sati using both humanitarian and natural rights doctrines as well as Hindu shastras. Ranade wrote on the shastric sanction for widow remarriage. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan emphasised free enquiry (ijtihad) in Islam and similarities between Koranic revelations and modern science. Kandukiri Viresalingam was familiar with navya-nyaya logic and translated works of biologist Julius Huxley.

• Key issuessati, child marriage, ban on widow remarriage, caste discrimination.
• Reformers mixed western liberal ideas with reinterpretation of tradition.
• ExamplesRaja Ram Mohun Roy, Ranade, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Viresalingam.

Sociologist Satish Saberwal sketched three aspects of the modern framework of change in colonial India: modes of communication, forms of organisation, and the nature of ideas. New technologies like the printing press, telegraph, microphone, steamship and railways speeded up communication and movement of ideas. Social reformers from different regions exchanged ideas; for instance, Keshav Chandra Sen of Bengal visited Madras in 1864, and Pandita Ramabai travelled widely. Modern organisations like Brahmo Samaj in Bengal and Arya Samaj in Punjab were set up. The All-India Muslim Ladies Conference was founded in 1914. Reformers debated through newspapers and journals, and translations of writings took place. New ideas of liberalism, freedom, homemaking, marriage, and roles for mothers and daughters emerged. Education became very important, and female education was intensely debated. Jotiba Phule opened the first school for women in Pune.

• Three aspectsmodes of communication, forms of organisation, nature of ideas.
• New technologiesprinting press, telegraph, microphone, steamship, railways.
• OrganisationsBrahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, All-India Muslim Ladies Conference (1914).
• Jotiba Phule opened the first school for women in Pune.

The four concepts—sanskritisation, modernisation, secularisation and westernisation—overlap and co-exist in many situations. It is common to find the same person being modern in some ways and traditional in another. This co-existence is often seen as natural to India and other non-western countries. However, sociology does not rest content with naturalist explanations. Colonial modernity had its own paradoxes. For example, western education led to the growth of an English-educated Indian middle class who read western enlightenment thinkers and dreamt of a liberal and progressive India. Yet, humiliated by colonial rule, they asserted pride in traditional learning and scholarship. Modernity spelled not merely new ideas but also rethinking and reinterpretation of tradition. Both culture and tradition are living entities; people learn them and modify them. The sari, for instance, is now worn with a western petticoat and blouse.

• The four processes overlap and co-exist.
• Same person can be modern in some ways and traditional in others.
• Colonial modernity had paradoxeswestern education led to both liberal ideas and pride in tradition.

The term sanskritisation was coined by M.N. Srinivas. It is the process by which a low caste or tribe or other group takes over the customs, ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life of a high, particularly a twice-born (dwija) caste. Its impact is many-sided, seen in language, literature, ideology, music, dance, drama, style of life and ritual. It primarily takes place within the Hindu space, though Srinivas argued it was visible even in sects and religious groups outside Hinduism. Studies show it operated differently in different parts of the country. In areas where a highly Sanskritised caste was dominant, the culture of the entire region underwent Sanskritisation. In regions where non-Sanskritic castes were dominant, their influence was stronger, termed de-Sanskritisation. In Punjab, Persian influence was dominant for many centuries until the third quarter of the 19th century. Srinivas argued that Sanskritisation usually improves a group's position in the local caste hierarchy, presupposing either an improvement in economic or political position or a higher group self-consciousness resulting from contact with a source of the Great Tradition of Hinduism, such as a pilgrim centre, monastery or proselytising sect. But in a highly unequal society like India, there were and still are obstacles to lower castes taking over higher caste customs. Dominant castes traditionally punished such attempts. Sanskritisation has been criticised for exaggerating social mobility, as it leads to no structural change but only positional change of some individuals. It accepts upper caste ways as superior and lower caste ways as inferior, and seems to justify a model resting on inequality and exclusion. It can lead to practices like secluding girls and women, adopting dowry instead of bride-price, and caste discrimination. It can erode key characteristics of Dalit culture, degrading the worth of their labour and identities based on work, crafts and artisanal abilities. With the growth of anti-Brahminical movements and regional self-consciousness in the 20th century, there were attempts to drop Sanskrit words and phrases. The Backward Classes Movement emphasised secular factors in upward mobility. Dominant castes no longer desired to pass for Vaisyas, Kshatriyas and Brahmins; it became prestigious to be a member of the dominant caste. Recent years have seen assertions of Dalits who now pride their identity as Dalits.

• Sanskritisationlow caste/tribe takes over customs, ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life of a high, particularly twice-born (dwija) caste.
• Coined by M.N. Srinivas.
• De-Sanskritisationinfluence of non-Sanskritic dominant castes.
• Criticismsexaggerates mobility, accepts upper caste superiority, justifies inequality, erodes Dalit culture.

M.N. Srinivas defines westernisation as the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, subsuming changes at different levels: technology, institutions, ideology and values. There were different kinds of westernisation. One kind refers to the emergence of a westernised sub-cultural pattern through a minority section of Indians who first came in contact with Western culture. This included the sub-culture of Indian intellectuals who adopted many cognitive patterns, or ways of thinking, and styles of life, and supported its expansion. Many early 19th century reformers were of this kind. Apart from this, there has been a general spread of Western cultural traits, such as the use of new technology, dress, food, and changes in habits and styles of people in general. Across the country, a wide section of middle class homes have a television set, a fridge, a sofa set, a dining table and chair. Westernisation involves the imitation of external forms of culture. It does not necessarily mean that people adopt modern values of democracy and equality. For example, people may be western educated but hold prejudiced views, or adopt western interiors but have conservative ideas about women's roles. The practice of female foeticide combines discriminatory attitudes towards women with modern technology. The West also influenced Indian art and literature. Artists like Ravi Varma, Abanindranath Tagore, Chandu Menon and Bankimchandra Chattopadhya grappled with the colonial encounter. Srinivas suggested that while lower castes sought to be Sanskritised, upper castes sought to be Westernised. However, in a diverse country like India this generalisation is difficult to maintain. Studies of Thiyyas in Kerala show conscious efforts to westernise; elite Thiyyas appropriated British culture as a move towards a more cosmopolitan life that critiqued caste. Western education often implied opening up to new opportunities for different groups in the North-East.

• Westernisationchanges brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule.
• Subsumes changes in technology, institutions, ideology and values.
• Involves imitation of external forms of culture, not necessarily modern values.
• Srinivaslower castes sought Sanskritisation, upper castes sought Westernisation; but generalisation difficult.

The term modernisation has a long history. From the 19th and more so the 20th century, it began to be associated with positive and desirable values. In early years, it referred to improvement in technology and production processes. Increasingly, it had a wider usage, referring to the path of development that much of west Europe or North America has taken, suggesting that other societies both have to and ought to follow the same path. In India, the beginnings of capitalism took place within the colonial context, so the story of our modernisation and secularisation is distinct from their growth in the west. Modernity assumes that local ties and parochial perspectives give way to universal commitments and cosmopolitan attitudes; that truths of utility, calculation and science take precedence over emotions, the sacred and the non-rational; that the individual rather than the group be the primary unit of society and politics; that associations be based on choice not birth; that mastery rather than fatalism orient attitudes; that identity be chosen and achieved, not ascribed and affirmed; that work be separated from family, residence and community in bureaucratic organisation. In the modern west, secularisation has usually meant a process of decline in the influence of religion. It has been an assumption of all theorists of modernisation that modern societies become increasingly secular. Indicators of secularisation have referred to levels of involvement with religious organisations, the social and material influence of religious organisations, and the degree to which people hold religious beliefs. Recent years have, however, seen an unprecedented growth of religious consciousness and conflict world over. Even in the past, a view that modern ways would necessarily lead to decline in religious ways has not been entirely true. Western and modern forms of communication, organisation and ideas led to the emergence of new kinds of religious reform organisations. Furthermore, a considerable part of ritual in India has direct reference to the pursuit of secular ends. Rituals have secular dimensions as distinct from secular goals. They provide occasions for socialising with peers and superiors, and for showing off family wealth, clothing and jewellery. During the last few decades, the economic, political and status dimensions of ritual have become increasingly conspicuous; the number of cars lined up outside a wedding house and the VIPs who attended provide an index to the household's standing in the local community. There has also been considerable debate about what is seen by some as secularisation of caste. In traditional India, the caste system operated within a religious framework; beliefs of purity and pollution were central to its practice. Today it often functions as political pressure groups. Contemporary India has seen the formation of caste associations and caste-based political parties. They seek to press upon the state their demands. Such a change

• Modernisationassociated with positive and desirable values; path of development of west Europe/North America.
• Modernityuniversal commitments, science over sacred, individual over group, choice over birth, achievement over ascription.
• Secularisationin the west, decline in influence of religion; indicators include involvement with religious organisations, their influence, and religious beliefs.
• Secularisation of castecaste functions as political pressure groups, not purely religious framework.

This chapter has shown the distinct ways that social change has taken place in India. The colonial experience had lasting consequences. Many of these were unintended and paradoxical. Western ideas of modernity shaped the imagination of Indian nationalists. It also prompted a fresh look at traditional texts by some, and led to a rejection of these by others. Western cultural forms found their place in spheres ranging from how families lived to what codes of conduct should men, women and children follow as artistic expressions. The ideas of equality and democracy made a huge impact, evident in both the reform movements and the nationalist movement. This led not just to adoption of western ideas, but also an active questioning and reinterpretation of tradition.

• Colonial experience had lasting, unintended and paradoxical consequences.
• Western ideas shaped nationalism and prompted reinterpretation of tradition.
• Ideas of equality and democracy impacted reform and nationalist movements.