Class 12 Sociology · Chapter 8 NotesStructural Change

Colonialism means the establishment of rule by one country over another. In the modern period, western colonialism had the greatest impact. Earlier conquerors in India's past also established rule, but their impact was different. Pre-capitalist conquerors mainly extracted tribute and did not interfere with the economic base. British colonialism, based on a capitalist system, directly interfered to ensure maximum profit for British capitalism. It changed land ownership laws, decided which crops could be grown, altered manufacturing and distribution, and brought in Forest Acts that restricted pastoralists from forests they had earlier used. Colonialism also caused large-scale movement of people within India and overseas. Some changes were deliberate, while others, like the growth of nationalist consciousness from western education, were unintended.

• Colonialismrule by one country over another
• Capitalisman economic system where means of production are privately owned and organised to accumulate profits within a market system
• Pre-capitalist conquerors took tribute but did not interfere with the economic base
• British colonialism directly interfered to strengthen and expand British capitalism

Capitalism in the west emerged through European exploration, plunder of wealth and resources, growth of science and technology, and its harnessing to industries and agriculture. It was marked by dynamism, the potential to grow and expand, and a global nature. Western colonialism was closely connected to the growth of western capitalism, which shaped how capitalism developed in colonised countries like India. Alongside capitalism, nation states became the dominant political form. A nation state has sovereign power within a defined territory, and its people are citizens of a single nation. Nation states are linked to nationalism and democratic ideas. This created a contradiction: colonial rule meant foreign rule over India, while nationalism implied that Indians had an equal right to be sovereign. Indian nationalist leaders grasped this irony and fought for swaraj.

• Nation statea state with sovereign power within a defined territory, with citizens of a single nation
• Nationalismthe principle that any set of people have a right to be free and exercise sovereign power
• Colonialism and nationalism are contradictory principles

Industrialisation refers to the emergence of machine production based on inanimate power resources like steam or electricity. In industrial societies, a large majority of employed people work in factories, offices or shops rather than agriculture, and urbanisation is usually associated with industrialisation. In Britain, the first society to industrialise, under 20 per cent of the population lived in towns of over 10,000 people in 1800; by 1900 this had risen to 74 per cent. In India, the same British industrialisation led to deindustrialisation in some sectors and the decline of old urban centres. Traditional cotton and silk exports declined against Manchester competition. Cities like Surat and Masulipatnam declined while Bombay and Madras grew. Towns like Thanjavur, Dhaka and Murshidabad lost their courts and court gentry. Unlike Britain, in India the initial impact led to more people moving into agriculture.

• Industrialisationemergence of machine production based on inanimate power resources like steam or electricity
• Urbanisationgrowth of population living in towns and cities
• In India, British industrialisation led to deindustrialisation in some sectors and decline of old urban centres
• The Census of India Report, 1911, noted that many village artisans abandoned their hereditary craft for agriculture

Cities played a key role in the economic system of empires. Coastal cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai were favoured as they allowed easy export of primary commodities and cheap import of manufactured goods. Colonial cities were the link between the economic core in Britain and the periphery in colonised India. Kolkata began in 1690 when an English merchant, Job Charnock, leased three villages by the river Hugli to set up a trading post; Fort William was established in 1698. The tea industry began in India in 1851, mostly in Assam. In 1903 it employed 4,79,000 permanent and 93,000 temporary employees. Labour was imported from other provinces, often through fraud and coercion, aided by penal laws like the Transport of Native Labourers Act of 1863. Planters lived in luxury while labourers faced harsh conditions.

• Colonial cities were the concrete expression of global capitalism
• Bombay shipped over three-quarters of India's raw cotton by 1900
• Calcutta exported jute to Dundee; Madras sent coffee, sugar, indigo dyes and cotton to Britain
• Tea industry began in India in 1851, mostly in Assam

For Indian nationalists, economic exploitation under colonial rule was a central issue. Images of India's pre-colonial riches contrasted with the poverty of British India. The Swadeshi movement strengthened loyalty to the national economy, and modern ideas made people realise that poverty was preventable. Indian nationalists saw rapid industrialisation as the path towards both growth and social equity. Development of heavy and machine-making industries, expansion of the public sector, and holding of a large cooperative sector were considered very important. Many new industrial towns emerged after Independence, such as Bokaro, Bhilai, Rourkela and Durgapur. The independent Indian state played an active role in promoting industrialisation, responding to the impact colonialism had on the growth of industry in India.

• Nationalists saw rapid industrialisation as the path to growth and social equity
• Heavy and machine-making industries, public sector expansion and a large cooperative sector were considered important
• New industrial towns after Independence include Bokaro, Bhilai, Rourkela and Durgapur

Recent years of globalisation have led to enormous expansion and change of cities. In the 21st century, India will witness a fast pace of urbanisation with the 'Smart City' scheme initiated by the Government of India. Sociologist M.S.A. Rao described three different situations of urban impact on villages in the first two decades after Independence. First, villages where a sizeable number of people have sought employment in far-off cities, leaving families behind and sending money home. Second, villages situated near an industrial town, where some villages are totally uprooted and others partially acquired, bringing immigrant workers and new demands. Third, the growth of metropolitan cities, where a few villages are totally absorbed while only the land of many others is used for urban development.

• M.S.A. Rao described three types of urban impact on villages
• First typevillagers migrate to far-off cities and send money home
• Second typevillages near an industrial town face uprooting and immigrant workers
• Third typemetropolitan city growth absorbs some villages and uses land of others

In 1951, 17.29 per cent of India's population, about 62.44 million people, lived in 2,843 towns. In 2011, 31.16 per cent, about 377.10 million people, lived in 7,935 towns. This shows a steady increase in absolute numbers, number of urban agglomerations and towns, and the per cent share of the urban population. However, the decennial growth rate of the urban population showed a declining trend during 1981–2001, reversed the trend and showed a marginal increase in 2011. The decennial growth rate was 41.42 per cent in 1951 and 31.80 per cent in 2011. For the first time since Independence, the absolute increase in population is more in urban areas than in rural areas, due to a sharp decline in rural growth rate. Colonialism is not just a topic in history but lives on in complex ways. Industrialisation and urbanisation imply changes not just in production systems and density of settlements but also a way of life.

• 195117.29% urban population, 62.44 million people, 2,843 towns
• 201131.16% urban population, 377.10 million people, 7,935 towns
• Decennial urban growth rate41.42% in 1951, 31.80% in 2011
• For the first time since Independence, absolute increase in population is more in urban areas than rural areas