Class 12 Sociology · Chapter 15 NotesSocial Movements
Understand social movements for Class 12 Sociology: features, types, workers, Dalit, tribal, ecological and women's movements explained simply with key points.
Social movements are organised efforts by groups of people to bring about or prevent change in society. This chapter explains what makes a social movement different from a spontaneous protest, why sociologists study them, and how they are classified. It then looks at major movements in India and beyond: workers' movements, peasant and farmers' movements, Dalit and backward class movements, tribal movements such as the Jharkhand movement, ecological movements like Chipko, and the women's movement. You will also learn how old class-based movements differ from new movements focused on identity, environment and quality of life. Understanding social movements helps you see that the rights we enjoy today — from the eight-hour workday to universal adult franchise — were won through sustained collective action, not given automatically.
What you'll learn
1Define a social movement and list its defining features
2Explain why sociology studies social movements
3Distinguish between redemptive, reformist and revolutionary movements
4Compare old social movements with new social movements
5Describe the workers' movement and the growth of trade unions in India
6Outline the Dalit movement and backward class movements
7Summarise the Jharkhand tribal movement and the Chipko ecological movement
8Trace the phases of the women's movement in India
Chapter at a glance
01Introducing Social Movements
02Features of a Social Movement
03Progressive, Regressive and Radical Movements
04Class-Based Movements: The Workers’ Movement
05Caste-Based Movements: The Dalit Movement
06Tribal Movements: The Jharkhand Movement
Detailed chapter notes
01
Introducing Social Movements
Many rights we take for granted — weekends, equal pay, social security, universal adult franchise — were not gifts but outcomes of long struggles. Social movements have shaped the modern world: the nationalist movements that ended colonial rule, the socialist movements, the civil rights movement in the United States, and the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa. Social movements not only change societies; they also inspire other movements. In India, the national movement influenced the making of the Constitution, which in turn became a tool for social change. The chapter begins by reminding us that rights are historical achievements, and that understanding them requires studying the movements that won them.
Social movements are a key source of social change
Rights such as the eight-hour workday and voting rights were won through struggle
Movements can inspire other movements across the world
02
Features of a Social Movement
A social movement requires sustained collective action over time, not a one-off spontaneous protest. It must have some degree of organisation — leadership, a structure for decision-making, and ways of carrying out decisions. Participants share objectives and ideologies, and the movement has a general orientation towards bringing about or preventing change. These features are not fixed; they can change over the life of a movement. Movements often face counter-movements that defend the status quo, such as the Dharma Sabha opposing Rammohun Roy's campaign against sati. Besides protest, movements also mobilise people through meetings, lobbying, and distinctive modes of protest like candle marches, street theatre, songs, ahimsa and satyagraha.
Sustained collective action over time
Some degree of organisation and leadership
Shared objectives and ideology
Counter-movements often arise in defence of the status quo
03
Sociology and Social Movements
Sociology has been interested in social movements from its beginnings. The French Revolution and the industrial revolution in Britain produced great upheaval, and early sociologists were concerned about social order. Emile Durkheim saw social movements as forces that could lead to disorder, and his work on division of labour, religion and suicide reflected this anxiety about social integration. Scholars influenced by Karl Marx offered a different view. Historians like E. P. Thompson showed that crowds and mobs were not simply anarchic; they had a 'moral economy' — a shared understanding of right and wrong. Poor people often protested because they had no other way to express anger against deprivation. This contrast shows how the same movement can be interpreted very differently.
Durkheimconcerned with social order and integration
Marxist scholarssaw protest as rational response to exploitation
E. P. Thompson: the crowd had a 'moral economy'
04
Types of Social Movements
Social movements can be classified as redemptive, reformist or revolutionary. A redemptive movement aims to change the personal consciousness and actions of its members, as when Narayana Guru led the Ezhava community in Kerala to change social practices. Reformist movements seek gradual, incremental change in social and political arrangements; the 1960s movement for linguistic reorganisation of states and the Right to Information campaign are examples. Revolutionary movements attempt radical transformation, often by capturing state power, such as the Bolshevik revolution in Russia or the Naxalite movement in India. In practice, most movements mix these elements, and their orientation may shift over time. How a movement is classified also depends on interpretation — what the British called the 'mutiny' of 1857, Indian nationalists called the 'first war of Independence'.
Redemptivechange personal consciousness
Reformistgradual, incremental change
Revolutionaryradical transformation, often capturing state power
Classification is a matter of interpretation
05
Old and New Social Movements
Old social movements, such as working class movements in the capitalist West, focused on reorganising power relations and were closely tied to political parties — the Indian National Congress led the national movement, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese Revolution. New social movements, by contrast, are often about quality-of-life issues like a clean environment, and are not organised along class lines alone. Identity politics, cultural anxieties and aspirations are central. Rajni Kothari attributes the surge of social movements in India in the 1970s to growing dissatisfaction with parliamentary democracy, as state institutions were seen as captured by elites. Today the term civil society covers both old movements (parties, trade unions) and new ones (NGOs, women's groups, environmental groups). Globalisation has also led to international alliances like the World Social Forum.
Old movementsclass-based, party-led, about power relations
New movementsquality-of-life, identity, environment, cross-class
Rajni Kotharidissatisfaction with parliamentary democracy led to new movements
Civil society includes both old and new formations
06
Ecological Movements: The Chipko Movement
Ecological movements question the dominant model of development that exploits natural resources and assumes everyone benefits. Big dams and industries displace people from homes and livelihoods. The Chipko Movement in the Himalayan foothills is a key example. According to Ramachandra Guha, villagers — especially women — hugged trees to prevent government contractors from felling oak and rhododendron forests. The conflict pitted villagers' subsistence needs against the government's desire for timber revenue. It raised issues of social inequality (villagers versus commercial interests), ecological sustainability (deforestation caused floods and landslides), and political representation (hill villagers against a distant government in the plains). Thus economy, ecology and identity were interlinked. The government has since initiated programmes like Namami Gange and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
Chipkovillagers hugged trees to stop felling
Combined economic, ecological and identity concerns
Women played a leading role, as in the Reni forest protest led by Gaura Devi
07
Class-Based Movements: Peasants and Workers
Peasant movements go back to pre-colonial times. Early movements like the Bengal indigo revolt (1859–62) and the Deccan riots (1857) were localised. Under Mahatma Gandhi, some became linked to the national movement, such as the Champaran Satyagraha (1917–18) and Bardoli Satyagraha (1928). The Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929) and All India Kisan Sabha (1936) organised peasants. The Tebhaga movement (1946–47) and Telangana movement (1946–51) were classic struggles. New farmers' movements from the 1970s in Punjab and Tamil Nadu were regionally organised, non-party, and focused on prices and related issues. Workers' movements began with factory production in the 1860s. Early protests were spontaneous. The first trade union was formed in 1918 in Madras by B.P. Wadia; the AITUC was formed in 1920. Later splits led to INTUC and other unions.
Peasant movementsTebhaga, Telangana, Kisan Sabhas
New farmers' movementsanti-state, anti-urban, price issues
First trade union1918, Madras, by B.P. Wadia
AITUC formed 1920; splits led to INTUC in 1947
08
Caste-Based Movements: Dalit and Backward Classes
Dalit movements are not just about economic exploitation or political oppression; they are a struggle for recognition as human beings, for self-confidence and self-determination, and against the stigma of untouchability. The word 'Dalit' means broken or ground down, and was first used in its new context in Marathi by neo-Buddhist activists in the early 1970s. There has been no single unified Dalit movement; different movements have highlighted different issues, but all assert a Dalit identity and share a quest for equality, dignity and eradication of untouchability. Examples include the Satnami Movement, Adi Dharma Movement, Mahar Movement, and anti-Brahman movement in south India. Dalit literature has also grown. Backward class movements emerged as political entities, with organisations like the All India Backward Classes Federation.
Dalitbroken, ground down; term used by neo-Buddhist activists in early 1970s
Common questequality, self-dignity, eradication of untouchability
Movements classified as reformative, redemptive and revolutionary
Backward Classespolitical mobilisation from late 19th century
09
Tribal Movements: The Jharkhand Movement
Tribal movements are largely located in the 'tribal belt' of middle India, including the Santhals, Hos, Oraons and Mundas in Chota Nagpur and Santhal Parganas. Jharkhand, carved out of south Bihar in 2000, was the result of over a century of resistance. Birsa Munda led a major uprising against the British and became an icon. Christian missionaries spread literacy, and literate adivasis researched and wrote about their history and culture, helping create a unified Jharkhandi identity. A middle-class adivasi leadership emerged and demanded a separate state. Adivasis shared a hatred of 'dikus' — migrant traders and moneylenders who grabbed wealth. Issues included land acquisition, forest produce nationalisation, and resistance to loans and rents. In the North East, tribal movements shifted from secessionism to demands for autonomy within the Constitution.
The 19th century social reform movements raised issues concerning women. Early 20th century saw women's organisations like the Women's India Association (1917), National Council for Women in India (1925) and All India Women's Conference (1926). The AIWC initially thought women's welfare and politics were separate, but later linked women's freedom to national freedom. Women participated in agrarian and tribal struggles like Tebhaga and Telangana. After 1947, many activists joined nation-building, and the Partition caused a lull. The mid-1970s saw a renewal — the second phase — with new organisational strategies and issues like violence against women. Campaigns led to legal changes and recognition that women's experiences differ by class and caste. The idea of a gender-just society rests on educated women with multiple roles and improved sex ratio; Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana is an effort in this direction.
Early organisationsWIA (1917), NCWI (1925), AIWC (1926)
Second phase from mid-1970snew issues like violence against women
Recognition of differences among women by class, caste
Gender-just societyeducated women, improved sex ratio
Want the complete chapter resources?Topic notes, quizzes and flashcards for Social Movements.
What is the primary characteristic of a social movement?
AIt is a spontaneous gathering of people without any specific goal.
BIt involves collective action aimed at bringing about or resisting social change.
CIt is always led by a political party to gain power.
DIt is an individual effort to improve personal status.
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Answer: (B) It involves collective action aimed at bringing about or resisting social change.
A social movement is defined by sustained collective action that seeks to promote or oppose social change, distinguishing it from random gatherings or individual efforts.
Question 02
Which of the following is the most essential feature of a social movement?
AIt is a spontaneous, unorganized reaction to an event
BIt involves collective action aimed at bringing about or resisting social change
CIt is always led by a single charismatic leader
DIt operates only through violent means
Show answer
Answer: (B) It involves collective action aimed at bringing about or resisting social change
A social movement is fundamentally a collective action that seeks to bring about or resist social change, unlike spontaneous crowds or violent groups.
Question 03
What is the primary purpose of having a theory in social movements?
ATo provide a systematic explanation of why and how movements emerge and operate
BTo create a rigid set of rules that all movements must follow
CTo replace the need for real-world action with abstract ideas
DTo ensure that all movements achieve immediate success
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Answer: (A) To provide a systematic explanation of why and how movements emerge and operate
A theory offers a systematic framework to understand the causes, processes, and outcomes of social movements, rather than prescribing fixed rules or guaranteeing success.
Question 04
Which of the following is the primary goal of a progressive social movement?
ATo restore past social institutions and values
BTo bring about positive social change and reform
CTo completely overthrow the existing social structure
DTo maintain the current social order without any change
Show answer
Answer: (B) To bring about positive social change and reform
Progressive movements aim to introduce reforms and improve existing social conditions, moving society forward.
Question 05
The workers' movement in India primarily emerged as a response to which set of conditions?
ACaste-based discrimination and untouchability
BExploitation, low wages, and poor working conditions under industrial capitalism
CLack of access to education and healthcare in rural areas
DReligious conflicts and communal tensions in urban centres
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Answer: (B) Exploitation, low wages, and poor working conditions under industrial capitalism
The workers' movement arose to address the exploitation and harsh conditions faced by industrial workers, such as long hours, low pay, and unsafe workplaces, under capitalism.
Ready for more practice?Unlock the full quiz for this chapter.
Q1. Define a social movement. Explain any two features that distinguish it from other forms of collective action.
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Model answer
A social movement is a sustained, organized collective effort by a large group of people to bring about or resist social change. Two distinguishing features are: (1) It is sustained over a period of time, unlike a spontaneous crowd or mob. (2) It has a clear ideology or goal, such as demanding rights or opposing a policy, rather than being a random or short-lived protest.
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Q2. Explain any three features of a social movement.
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Model answer
Three features of a social movement are: (1) It involves collective action by a group of people who share a common objective. (2) It seeks to bring about or resist social change in existing structures or values. (3) It has an ideology or set of beliefs that guides its actions and provides a sense of identity to its members.
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Q3. Why do social movements need a theory? Explain any two reasons.
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Model answer
Social movements need a theory because it helps them understand the root causes of the problem they are fighting against, such as inequality or exploitation. A theory also provides a clear vision and direction, guiding the movement's strategies and goals. Without theory, a movement may lack focus and fail to achieve lasting change.
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Q4. Define a progressive social movement. Give one example.
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Model answer
A progressive social movement is one that seeks to bring about social change in a forward-looking direction, aiming to improve the conditions of marginalized groups and promote greater equality or justice. An example is the women's suffrage movement, which fought for women's right to vote.
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Q5. Explain any three factors that led to the emergence of the workers' movement in India during the colonial period.
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Model answer
The workers' movement in colonial India emerged due to exploitative working conditions like long hours and low wages, the impact of nationalist ideas, and the growth of factories which concentrated workers in urban areas. These factors led workers to organize for better rights and wages.
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A social movement is a sustained collective action over time, with some degree of organisation, shared objectives and ideology, aimed at bringing about or preventing change in society. It is not a spontaneous, disorganised protest. Movements often target the state to demand changes in policy or practice.
What are the main features of a social movement?
Key features include sustained collective action, organisation and leadership, shared objectives and ideologies, and a general orientation towards change. These features can change over the movement's life. Movements also develop distinct modes of protest like satyagraha, street theatre or candle marches.
What is the difference between old and new social movements?
Old social movements were class-based, focused on reorganising power relations, and led by political parties or trade unions. New social movements focus on quality-of-life issues like environment, identity and culture, are not organised along class lines alone, and often unite people across class boundaries.
What is the difference between reformist and revolutionary movements?
Reformist movements seek gradual, incremental change in existing social and political arrangements, such as the Right to Information campaign. Revolutionary movements attempt radical transformation, often by capturing state power, such as the Bolshevik revolution or the Naxalite movement.
What was the Chipko Movement?
The Chipko Movement was an ecological movement in the Himalayan foothills where villagers, especially women, hugged trees to prevent government contractors from felling them. It combined concerns about villagers' subsistence, ecological sustainability, and political representation against a distant government.
Why did the Jharkhand movement demand a separate state?
The Jharkhand movement demanded a separate state because adivasis felt marginalised by dikus (migrant traders and moneylenders) who grabbed wealth from mining and industry, and by government policies on land, forests and loans. A shared Jharkhandi identity was built through history, culture and literature, leading to statehood in 2000.